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Learning Outcomes

• Compare and contrast ancient perspectives regarding gender and sexuality to modern-day perspectives
• Understand the main aspects of various theories that influence the study of human sexuality

Introduction

Societies and individuals across time periods and around the world have long been interested in making sense of human sexuality. From freedom of expression to forced repression, sex and gender continue to be much debated and highly polarizing subjects. To begin to make sense of human sexuality, we will address some ancient perspectives and historical changes influencing social acceptance of sexual behaviors and gender variance, then end by discussing more contemporary psychological theories as we try to understand the evolutionary, historical, political, religious, and other influences that shape our current understanding of gender and sexuality.

Ancient Perspectives

Keep in mind that it is difficult to truly understand the thought processes and perspectives of these ancient civilizations and that archeologists and anthropologists can only make guesses about the materials they have uncovered. Art and writings are the most commonly preserved items that are used to make assumptions about these time periods. A problem that often arises is that we try to use today’s perspective regarding gender and sexuality which biases the way we make sense of the past. In reality, unless we develop time travel, we will never know the full realities of what gender and sexuality looked like in antiquity. When we look back across time, the term HIStory is very fitting as well because the public and private lives of men dominate, and the perspectives of women are often not focused upon as much (Carroll, 2017). If men are the main artists and writers in a society, which is often the case and elements of this are still present in our society today, this shapes the narratives being told and passed down. Additionally, many societies relied on oral traditions that have been lost through the process of colonization because the stories have faded with the erasure of people and their cultures.

The following information is based on Carroll (2017).

Egypt (approx. 1100 B.C.): Erotic images found on carvings and papyrus. Temple prostitutes would have sex with pagan worshippers as sex was seen as a connection to the spiritual. Some depictions of possible gay sexual relationships between men have been found, such as a tomb uncovered featuring two males in close contact similar to how straight relationships were depicted. Early archaeologists and anthropologists said they were probably brothers, but this has been an area recently reviewed and perceived differently.

Greeks (1000-200 B.C.): Pedastery was commonly practiced, which is when an older man would mentor a postpubescent boy in his studies and in his sexual development. This was seen as a rite of passage. Sexual relations between soldiers were also normalized as it was believed that males with close relationships would fight harder for each other in battle. The male body was idolized and Plato is attributed with exploring how nonsexual love between two men was viewed as the ideal love. This is where we get the current day term for “platonic love,” or love without a sexual element. The female Greek poet Sappho, who lived on the Isle of Lesbos, wrote erotic poetry about women. This is where we get the term “lesbian” from.

The Hebrews (1000-200 B.C.): The Hebrew Bible outlines the rules around sexual behavior. Adultery and homosexuality between men (women are not mentioned) were both viewed as being wrong. Some scholars think this was because women were viewed as property, so the idea of a man having sex with another man would reduce one of them to the position of the other’s property. Others, however, believe this is meant to be taken literally and that it should now include lesbianism and other non-heterosexual acts. Marital sexuality was grounded in a focus on procreation rather than pleasure and this stance was adopted by Christianity which would go on to form the groundwork for sexual attitudes in the West, such as the current-day United States.

India (400 B.C.): The Kamasutra is an erotic text that is a detailed manual meticulously containing information about any imaginable sexual position, love, family life, and moral frameworks. Sexuality and spirituality were viewed as connected. While there are stories of powerful women rulers, the society was mostly patriarchal with male lives being valued more than female lives. Female infanticide was not uncommon and killing a woman was not regarded as a serious crime. Hijras, or a third gender in which a person originally designated a male at birth takes on a feminine role in society which often included castration, were also mentioned in the Kamasutra and were given central roles in many religious ceremonies. Marginalization and stigma for these individuals are believed to have become more prevalent through the British colonization of India in the early 1500s.

China (200 B.C.): Balance and harmony between all parts of nature are at the core of Toaist and Confucian thought. Yin (female essence) was viewed as endless whereas yang (male essence contained in semen) needed to be controlled and maintained through prolonged contact with yin. Sex manuals were common teaching men how to experience orgasm without ejaculation to preserve their sperm, while brides were given texts on how to pleasure their husbands. Female orgasm was viewed as important in order to receive the maximum benefit from yin essence. Even though a balance between yin and yang was valued within each individual, yin was viewed as more passive and subservient and, since women were believed to have more of this essence naturally, they were expected to be subservient to the men in their lives–fathers, husbands and sons. Polygamy, a male with multiple wives and concubines, was commonly practiced.

Optional additional resources if you would like to explore these topics further:

Hufnail, M. (2014). History of sex. Eastern world. New York, NY: A & E Television Networks. video permalink

McClure, L. (2002). Sexuality and gender in the classical world : Readings and sources . Oxford, UK ; Malden, MA, USA: Blackwell. eBook permalink

Younger, J. (2005). Sex in the ancient world from A to Z. London; New York: Routledge. eBook permalink

Voss, B., & Casella, E. C. (eds.) (2012). The archaeology of colonialism intimate encounters and sexual effects. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. eBook permalink

Psychological Theories

As we begin to explore these different perspectives, begin thinking which theories seem to make the most sense to you. Analyze what has occurred in your life to make certain explanations click with you more and why others do not seem quite right. If you were a researcher and theorist, what gaps in these might you try to fill?

Evolutionary Theories

Both sociobiology and evolutionary psychology are based on the initial work of Charles Darwin

Sociobiology–“the application of evolutionary biology to understanding the social behavior of animals, including humans” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 23)

Evolutionary Psychology–“the study of psychological mechanisms that have been shaped by natural selection” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 25)

Evolution–subtle changes occur over generations that influence how all livings things were in the past, are in the present and will become in the future, as genes are past down from parents to offspring.

Natural selection–evolution occurs through this process; plants and animals that are better suited for their particular environment have the greatest chance of passing on their genes.

Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology assert the following (specific to attraction and sexual behavior):

• We are attracted to what signifies producing healthy offspring
• Parents bond emotionally because, if they stay together, their children have higher rates of survival
• Sexual selection–differences in males and females to increase competition; males will compete with other males and females will provide preferential treatment to whom they deem the most genetically fit to reproduce with

Western Psychological Theories from Freud to Now

Psychoanalytic Theory

Developed by Sigmund Freud

Libido–“sex energy or sex drive” which Freud believed to be one of the two motivating factors to behavior (the second being death) (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 26)

The parts of our personality are divided into three parts:

Id–contains libido and operates off of the pleasure principle; if unchecked, would give in to all temptations and desires imaginable

Ego–reality principle; navigates between the id and superego to help us decide our final course of action

Superego–“contains the values and ideals of society that we learn” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 26)

Erogenous zones–areas of the body that are a focus for our libidinal energy will cause us to become aroused when they are touched in certain ways

Stages of Psychosexual Development–oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

Oedipus and Electra Complexes–we have an innate competition with our same-sex parent and have a sexual attraction to our opposite-sex parent through adolescence

• For boys (Oedipus Complex), castration anxiety, or a fear of having their penis cut off by their father causes them to shift from competing to identifying with their father and taking on his gender role in society.
• For girls (Electra Complex), they experience penis envy in that they wish that they too could have a penis. In this realization that they cannot have a penis, they begin to desire to be impregnated by their father. Since girls have already lost their penis, women will live their lives stunted and less developed than men.

Keep in mind, Freud lived during the Victorian Era, and I encourage you to do a little research on what this time period was like, especially for women. A fun little fact: doctors at this time began helping “hysterical” women achieve orgasm as a cure to this “mental disorder” and this is how the vibrator was invented–the doctors’ hands got too tired to keep up with all the demands.

Learning Theory

While evolutionary theories attempt to answer the “nature” behind sexuality, learning theory seeks to answer the “nurture” part of the puzzle.

Classical Conditioning–a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus in order to produce an unconditioned response. Think of Pavlov’s dogs in which the bell (neutral stimulus) is paired with food (an unconditioned stimulus) to produce salivating (unconditioned response). This is done so often that the food (unconditioned stimulus) can now be removed and a once neutral stimulus (the bell) can produce the unconditioned response (salivating) on its own. In terms of sexual behaviors, women’s underwear (neutral stimulus) is paired with porn (unconditioned stimulus) producing arousal (unconditioned response) enough times that now the women’s underwear produces arousal on its own without porn.

Operant Conditioning–certain behaviors can be “reinforced” to support that they continue or “punished” to try to make them stop

Behavior Modification–utilizing operant conditioning techniques to influence someone’s behavior

Social Learning Theory–imitation and identification are the two main processes to this; in other words, we seek to imitate those who we identify with. For instance, if a child sees a character in a movie who they identify with then they will seek to imitate the behaviors of that character. This is particularly helpful in understanding the internalization of gender roles.

Self-Efficacy–a feeling of competence when engaging in a certain behavior; we are more likely to engage in behaviors we have seen others practice and that we have practiced ourselves

Social Exchange Theory

This theory believes that people are hedonistic, meaning they are pleasure-seeking. Humans engage in activities that produce rewards and minimize costs. Relationships are maintained only when the benefits outweigh the costs.

In her 1998 work, Susan Sprecher discusses the foundational assumptions of social exchange theory, which are commonly shared across various models. These assumptions include the idea that social behavior consists of exchanges, individuals aim to maximize rewards and minimize costs, and that there is an obligation to reciprocate when one receives rewards from others. These principles are applicable not only to general interpersonal interactions but also to more specific exchanges, such as the exchange of sexual favors.

Key concepts in social exchange theory include rewards, costs, and reciprocity. Rewards are defined as pleasurable or gratifying resources, while costs refer to resources that result in loss or punishment, including foregone opportunities. The net result of exchanges—calculated by subtracting costs from rewards—is often referred to as benefits or profits. Reciprocity emphasizes the idea that individuals feel compelled to give back to those who have given to them. These concepts can also be specifically applied to sexual exchanges, where rewards and costs may include intimacy, love, favors, or even money.

Cognitive Theory

Our perception becomes our reality–the way we think about sexuality influences the way we behave sexually.

Schema–think of this as a general blueprint, framework or map that you have for some general concept

Sandra Bem, whose notable research was published in the 1980s, would be considered a cognitive theorist. She conducted her research attempting to understand the development of gender roles. She believed that all of us have gender schemas which are “a cognitive structure comprising the set of attributes (behaviors, personality, appearance) that we associate with males and females” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 33). These gender schemas are based on stereotypes and influence us to label certain behaviors as “male” or “female.” Stereotype-consistent behaviors are accepted while stereotype-inconsistent behaviors are viewed as a fluke or a rare occasion, causing us to believe the stereotypes despite many examples in our lives to disprove the stereotypes.

The takeaway: Stereotypes are a trap that we often get stuck in because society operates off of them and upholds them. In order to combat this, question everything, especially your own beliefs. Schemas save us time to have everything set aside in our minds in neat little boxes, but life is actually quite messy and disorganized.

Current Critical Theories

Both Feminist Theory and Queer Theory are social constructionist perspectives in which they believe that gender and sexuality are constructed and given meaning by society.

Feminist Theory

Feminist theories often emphasize that gender is a social construct rather than a purely biological or innate characteristic. They argue that societal norms and expectations shape how individuals understand and perform their gender roles and identities. This perspective challenges rigid notions of masculinity and femininity.

• Seeks to call attention and analyze the inequality of power in society regarding gender, especially challenge patriarchical bias.
• Asserts that male control over female sexuality leads to repression and depression amongst people in these types of societies.
• Analyzes the development and continuation of restrictive gender roles
• Intersectionality, has gained particular usage in which gender as it connects with other identities, such as race and ethnicity, is explored and analyzed

Queer Theory

Queer theory seeks to deconstruct and critique traditional categories and norms related to sexuality and gender. It questions the binary understanding of sexual orientation (e.g., heterosexual and homosexual) and the gender binary (e.g., male and female). Queer theory emphasizes the fluidity and complexity of human sexuality and gender.

• Challenges binaries, such as in sexuality and gender
• Challenges heteronormativity, which is the belief that being straight (or heterosexual) is what is normative and natural

Sociological Theories

Symbolic interaction theory–“human nature and the social order are the products of communication among people” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 35)

• Role taking–viewing ourselves from the perspectives of others in order to predict and meet their needs and achieve our goals
• Sexual scripts–think of this as a script you were asked to perform in a theater play, except this is a script that you believe is how you should behave sexually in your real life based on the messages you have received from the directors of the play (your parents, society, media, peers, teachers, religion, culture, politics, law, medical field, etc.)
• Sexual fields–context is important; invisible social boundaries exist that influence our behavior
• Social institutions–religion, economy, family, medicine (medicalization of sexuality), and law; these institutions then regulate our sexuality in various ways to uphold the norms in a given society

Takeaway: Society and culture shape and control our sexual expression in very profound, yet often unrealized ways.

References

Arnold, J., Sunell, S., Nigra, B., Bishop, K., Jones, T., & Bongers, J. (2016). Entrenched disbelief: Complex hunter-gatherers and the case for inclusive cultural evolutionary thinking. Journal of Archaeological Method & Theory, 23(2), 448–499. Article permalink

Carroll, J. L. (2019). Sexuality NOW: Embracing diversity (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage.

Hyde, J. & DeLamater, J. (2017). Understanding human sexuality (13th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw/Hill.

Sprecher, S. (1998). Social exchange theories and sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 35(1), 32-43.

What is a bonobo? (2020). Hominoid Psychology Research Group, Duke University. Retrieved from https://evolutionaryanthropology.duke.edu/research/3chimps/chimps-bonobos

Introduction to Human Sexuality by Ericka Goerling & Emerson Wolfe is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.