1 The Basics

In order to understand music, we begin with the basics: rhythm and pitches.

INTRODUCTION  1.1

The first step in learning music is to understand the basics: rhythm and pitches.

Rhythm refers to how musical sounds are heard as points in time. Musical sounds are represented by notes and silence is represented by rests. Notes and rests can have different values, meaning they can be longer or shorter.

Pitches refer to how musical sounds are heard in terms of how high or low they sound. Because of their close interconnection, the terms “pitch” and “note” are often used synonymously. Pitches are represented by note names using the musical alphabet: A B C D E F G. After G, we return to A: A B C D E F G A B C… The first and second A are an octave apart since they are eight notes apart. B and B are also an octave apart, and so on.

This chapter will alternate between note values and note names, reinforcing each as we move forward.

NOTE VALUES  1.2

In order to know how long or how short to sound pitches, we need to notate rhythm with different note values. First, we will describe the parts of a note.

Example 1.2.1. Parts of a note

Parts of the note are pointed out, including noteheads, stems, and flags.

  • Notehead: Every note has an oval-shaped notehead. The notehead can be unfilled or filled.
  • Stem: Most noteheads (but not all) have a stem.
    • When the stem points up, it is placed on the right of the notehead.
    • When the stem points down, it is placed on the left of the notehead.
  • Flag: Many stems (but not all) have a flag.
    • Whether the stem points up or down, flags are always on the right side of the stem.
    • Stems can have multiple flags. To accommodate three or more flags, the stem is elongated.

Now that we know the basic parts of a note, we need to learn about the most common types of notes.

Example 1.2.2. Note types

Illustration of different types of notes, including the whole note, half notes, quarter note, eighth note, and sixteenth note.

  • Whole note: Unfilled notehead and no stem
  • Half note: Unfilled notehead + stem
    • Stems can point up or down. This applies to all note values with stems.
  • Quarter note: Filled notehead + stem
  • Eighth note: Filled notehead + stem + flag
  • Sixteenth note: Filled notehead + stem + two flags

In Example 1.2.2, the whole note has the longest duration while the sixteenth note has the shortest duration. Each note value is proportionately related to one another. Understanding basic math and fractions is helpful to understand how note values are related.

Example 1.2.3. Note values

A whole note is divided into two half notes. A half note is divided into two quarter notes. A quarter note is divided into two eighth notes. An eighth note is divided into two sixteenth notes.

  • A whole note divides equally into two half notes.
    • Since two half notes equal one whole note, one half note is equal to half the value of a whole note.
  • A half note divides equally into two quarter notes.
    • Since two quarter notes equal one half note, one quarter note is equal to half the value of a half note.
  • A quarter note divides equally into two eighth notes.
    • Since two eighth notes equal one quarter note, one eighth note is equal to half the value of a quarter note.
  • An eighth note divides equally into two sixteenth notes.
    • Since two sixteenth notes equal one eighth note, one sixteenth note is equal to half the value of an eighth note.

There are less-common note values that are longer or shorter than the ones listed in Example 1.2.3. Adding more flags creates notes of shorter value including the thirty-second note, sixty-fourth note, and so on. The notes in this section are the most common ones.

Any note can equal one. Depending on which note is equal to one, the other notes are worth varying amounts. Look at Example 1.2.4 to see note values when a whole note is equal to one.

Example 1.2.4. Whole note = 1

A whole note equals one. A half note equals half, so two half notes equal a whole note. A quarter note equals one-fourth, so four quarter notes equal one whole note. An eighth note equals one-eighth, so eight eighth notes equal one whole note.

If a whole note is equal to one, the following statements are true:

  • A whole note can be divided into two half notes, so one half note is worth half.
  • A half note divides into two quarter notes and since there are two half notes in a whole note, a whole note can be divided into four quarter notes. This means that a quarter note is worth one-fourth (or one-quarter).
  • Each quarter note divides into two eighth notes, resulting in eight eighth notes. Therefore, a whole note can be divided into eight eighth notes, where an eighth note is worth one-eighth.

Now look at note values when other notes are equal to one in Example 1.2.5 (in blue).

Example 1.2.5. Varying note values

Any note value can equal one. If a half note equals one, a whole note is worth two, a quarter note is worth one-half, and an eighth note is worth one-fourth. If a quarter note equals one, a whole note is worth four, a half note is worth 2, and an eighth note is worth half. If an eighth note equals one, a whole note is worth 8, a half note is worth 4, and a quarter note is worth 2.

  • When a whole note was equal to one, the quarter note was worth one-fourth.
  • Example 1.2.5A: When the half note is equal to one, the quarter note is worth one-half. The whole note is now equal to two.
  • Example 1.2.5B: When the quarter note is equal to one, the whole note is now worth four.
  • Example 1.2.5C: When the eighth note is equal to one, the quarter note is worth two and the whole note is worth eight.

If it helps, visualize note values as serving sizes of pie.

  • If an entire pie (whole note) is the portion size, then eating half the pie (half note) will be worth half.
  • If one-fourth of a pie (quarter note) is the portion size, then eating half the pie (half note) will be worth two servings.

Composer often use a mix of note values to give the music variety. In Example 1.2.6, Hensel uses all the notes we learned in this section. There are many more symbols you may be unfamiliar with—ignore those for now and only focus on the various note values.

Example 1.2.6. Note values: Hensel[1], “Hörst du nicht die Bäume rauschen,” Gartenlieder, Op. 3, No. 1

Different note values are pointed out in Hensel's “Hörst du nicht die Bäume rauschen,” Gartenlieder, Op. 3, No. 1. There is a half note, eighth note and whole note in the soprano part and a sixteenth note and quarter note in the bass part.

  • Example 1.2.6 begins with half notes in all four voices.
    • The stem in the alto’s half note points up and to the right of the notehead.
    • The stems of the other three voices point down and to the left of the notehead.
    • We will learn why some stems point up while others point down in the next section.
  • The stem directions of the sixteenth notes and eighth notes vary, but the flags are always to the right.
  • The other two note values we learned in this example are the quarter note and whole note.

A summary box of note values. The most common note values are listed below, where each note is twice as long as the previous. They are a sixteenth note, an eighth note, a quarter note, a half note, and a whole note.

Practice 1.2A

Directions:

  • Fill in the boxes with the appropriate note.

A chart asking you to draw different types of notes and a note that is worth half the value. The first row asks you to the write the given note value. The second row asks you to write the note value that is worth half the value of the note in the first row. The sample asks for a whole note, so a whole note is drawn in the first row and a half note is drawn in the second row. Number 1 asks for a quarter note. Number 2 asks for a half note. Number 3 asks for an eighth note.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Practice 1.2B

Directions:

  • Fill in the blanks with the appropriate number. Use fractions and not decimals.

An exercise where you write in how much different notes are worth if the given note equals one. The sample gives you a whole note equaling 1, then asks for the value of an eighth note, half note, and quarter note. The sample's answers are one-eighth, one-half, and one-fourth. Number 1 tells you a half note is equal to 1. Question A asks what a whole note would be worth. Question B asks what an eighth note would be worth. Question C asks what a quarter note would be worth. Number 2 tells you an eighth note is equal to 1. Question A asks you what a sixteenth note would be worth. Question B asks you what a half note would be worth. Question C asks you what a whole note would be worth. Number 3 tells you a quarter note is equal to 1. Question A asks you what an eighth note would be worth. Question B asks you what a whole note would be worth. Question C asks you what sixteenth note would be worth.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Solution
1a)  2
1b)  1/4
1c)  1/2
2a)  1/2
2b)  4
2c)  8
3a)  1/2
3b)  4
3c)  1/4

TREBLE CLEF  1.3

In order to know how high or how low to sound pitches, we need to notate pitches on a musical staff with a clef.

  • A musical staff (or staff) is a set of five horizontal lines upon which notes are placed. You will be writing on staff paper for many of your assignments. Notes can be placed in the spaces between the lines or on the lines themselves.
  • A clef is placed at the start of the staff to tell us exactly how high or low the notes sound. There are a number of different types of clefs, but the staff is always consistent.

Example 1.3.1. Musical staff and treble clef

Staff, treble clef, lines, spaces, a measure or bar, and bar line are pointed out in the example. There is a note on the staff, which is a G.

  • Staff: Pitches are written on five horizontal lines called a staff.
    • Notes can be written on a line.
      • The whole note on the line does not fill an entire space above or below, and the line runs through the middle of the notehead.
      • There are five lines in the musical staff.
    • Notes can be written in a space, which is between the lines.
      • The whole note in the space does not go beyond the top or bottom line and fits neatly between the lines.
      • There are four spaces in the musical staff.
    • Notes can also be written above or below the staff, which will be discussed in Example 1.3.3.
  • Treble clef: The treble clef is a specific type of clef that is placed at the beginning of the staff and tells us how high or how low a note sounds.
    • The treble clef is the most common clef for higher voices (e.g., soprano and alto) and higher-sounding instruments (e.g., flute, clarinet, oboe, trumpet, violin).
    • The treble clef is also known as the G clef.
      • The starting point of a treble clef (the middle of the treble clef that looks like a snail shell) falls on where the pitch G lies. (The note on a line in Example 1.3.1 is G.)
      • The shape of the treble clef itself looks like the letter G.
    • The treble clef is difficult to draw, so be sure to practice writing it.
  • Bar line: At the end of the staff, there is a vertical line called a bar line, which breaks music into easy-to-understand segments called measures or bars.
    • Notice that there is no bar line at the beginning.

For treble clef, the pitches are set as shown in Example 1.3.2. It is extremely helpful to memorize the placement of these pitches on the staff as quickly as possible.

Example 1.3.2. Pitches in the treble clef

All pitches on the lines and in the spaces of a staff with a treble clef are shown. There are four space in a staff. The bottom space is the first space. Moving up, the other spaces are the second space, third space, and fourth space. There are five lines in a staff. The bottom line is the first line. Moving up, the other lines are the second line, third line, fourth line, and fifth line. The notes in the four spaces starting from the bottom space are F, A, C, and E. The notes on the five lines starting from the bottom line are E, G, B, D, and F.

  • Notes in the spaces of a staff with a treble clef spell FACE.
    • The first space is the lowest space, while the fourth space is the highest space.
    • The first space is F.
  • Notes on the lines of a staff with a treble clef spell EGBDF. You can use a mnemonic device, such as Elvis’s Guitar Broke Down Friday.
    • The first line is the lowest line, while the fifth line is the highest line.
    • The fifth line is F. The first space’s F and the fifth line’s F are an octave apart.

Although mnemonic devices such as Elvis’s Guitar Broke Down Friday can help you at first, it is extremely important that you memorize how to read notes quickly. There are numerous apps and websites that can help you with fluency.

In addition to the notes in Example 1.3.2, you should be fluent with a few extra notes below and above the staff. We can use a piano keyboard to help us.

Example 1.3.3. Keyboard and treble clef

Notes in the treble clef are shown with a keyboard. C is located to the left of the two black keys on the keyboard. Notes shown on the keyboard are C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and A. These notes are also shown int he treble clef, beginning with middle C, which is a ledger line below the staff. The last note is A and is a ledger line above the staff. The staff ends with a double bar line.

The white keys on the piano keyboard follow the musical alphabet, while the notes on the staff alternate between notes on a line and notes in a space. Remember that stems can point up or down. Notice how the stems are pointed in Example 1.3.3.

  • Noteheads on the second space and below have stems that point up and to the right.
  • Noteheads on the third line and above have stems that point down and to the left.
  • Stems are one octave in length. Locate the two Fs (in blue on the keyboard), which are an octave apart.
    • The stem on the F in the first space extends up to where the F on the fifth line is, making the stem an octave in length.
    • The stem on the F on the fifth line extends down to where the F in the first space is.

Notice the terms in blue in Example 1.3.3:

  • When we go beyond the staff, we need to add a ledger line, because there are no more lines to tell us what the note is.
    • A ledger line is a short line that represents a line on the staff if the staff were to continue (down or up) beyond its five lines. Without ledger lines, notes beyond the staff would just be floating in space.
    • Look at the last A, which has a ledger line. Without the ledger line, we would not be sure if the note was A or G.
  • Middle C has a ledger line and is the lowest note shown.
    • Middle C sits approximately halfway on a piano keyboard and is often used to give a visual sense of location. For example, one could say, “It’s the F right above middle C.”
  • If we need to go even higher than the last A or even lower than the first C, we would add more ledger lines.
  • The double bar line is a specific type of bar line that has two closely-placed vertical lines next to each other.
    • The double bar line is used when the next measure does not relate to the previous measure, when there are certain changes between one measure to the next, or when the next measure begins something new. (We will learn more about this later.)

The collection of notes in Example 1.3.3 is what you should be able to write and recognize fluently. Before moving on, be sure that you can identify and write these notes at approximately one per second.

Each row of staff, called a system, begins with a clef. Make sure to rewrite the clef when you begin a new system.

Example 1.3.4. Systems

Two lines of staff with treble clef are shown. The first line is called the first system and the second line is called the second system. Rewrite the clef at the start of each system. Each bar line separates measures, so the first area between the beginning and the first bar line is the first measure. The next area between bar lines is the second measure. In the second system, the number 3 appears at the top left hand corner. This is the measure number that begins that system.

  • The treble clef is written at the start of each staff.
  • The first line of music is called the first system, while the second line of music is called the second system.
  • Every system must end with a bar line if the measure is complete.
  • When we begin the second system, we notate the measure number (or bar number) on the top left-hand corner of the staff.
    • When writing, use “m.” to abbreviate the measure number. For example, “The second system begins at m. 3.”
    • When referring to multiple measure numbers, “mm.” is the abbreviation for measures: “The second system consists of mm. 3-4.”

Example 1.3.5 comes from Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. See how many familiar musical terms you can already identify in this excerpt. The English translation is beneath the German text and the pitches are given above the music in the second system.

Example 1.3.5. Treble clef: Beethoven[2], Symphony No. 9 in D Minor, Op. 125, iv, “Ode to Joy”

Terms we have learned are shown in Beethoven's Ode to Joy. The example begins with treble clef. There are bar lines and the example ends with a double bar line. Middle C is pointed out in the first system. The second system shows the measure number on the top left corner, which is measure 5.

  • Both the first and second system begin with a treble clef.
  • Bar lines separate each measure and the example concludes with a double bar line.
  • Middle C occurs six times—can you find them all?
  • The second system begins on measure 5, which is labeled on the top left-hand corner of the staff.

Summary box with hints to memorize pitches in treble clef are shown. One ledger line below the staff is middle C. The quarter note on middle C has a stem that is to the right of the notehead and is pointed up. Notes ascending from middle C continue to have stems pointing up until B, which falls on the middle line. The stem on that B is to the left of the notehead and is pointed down. Notes ascending from B continue to have stems pointing down until A, which is located one ledger line above the staff. The spaces of the staff in treble clef spell F, A, C, E, and the lines spell E, G, B, D, F, or Elvis's Guitar Broke Down Friday.

Practice 1.3A

Directions:

  • Identify the pitches on the staff. Try to identify the pitches as quickly as possible and without aids.

An exercise that asks you to identify pitches on the staff with treble clef. The sample has a whole note in the first space. The sample's answer is F. Number 1 is on the third line. Number 2 is in the fourth space. Number 3 is in the second space. Number 4 is on the ledger line below the staff. Number 5 is on the fourth line. Number 6 is on the second line. Number 7 is in the space above the staff. Number 8 is in the third space. Number 9 is on the ledger line above the staff. Number 10 is on the first line.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Solution
1)  B
2)  E
3)  A
4)  C
5)  D
6)  G
7)  G
8)  C
9)  A
10)  E

Practice 1.3B

Directions:

    • Write the pitches on the staff using half notes. Each note should have two answers (a low version and a high version). Try to write pitches as quickly as possible and without aids.

An exercise that asks you to write pitches in treble clef with both a stem pointing up and a stem pointing down. The sample asks for C. The first C is written on the ledger line below the staff with a stem pointing up. The second C is written in the third space with a stem pointing down. Number 1 asks for G. Number 2 asks for D. Number 3 asks for F. Number 4 asks for A. Number 5 asks for E.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Practice 1.3C

Directions:

    • Identify the notes on the keyboard.

An exercise asking you to identify notes on the keyboard. The sample is pointing to the white key to the left of the two black keys. The sample's answer is C. Number 1 is the white key to the right of the two black keys. Number 2 is two white keys above number 1. Number 3 is the white key to the right of the three black keys. Number 4 is the white key between the two black keys. Number 5 is the white key to the left of the three white keys. Number 6 is two white keys above number 5.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Solution
1)  E
2)  G
3)  B
4)  D
5)  F
6)  A

REST VALUES  1.4

In music, silence is as important as sound. Just as we use note values to represent how long to hold out sounds, we use rest values to show how long to have silence. Now that we are familiar with the basic note values, we will also learn about the less-common note values in this section. The notes and rests in blue in Example 1.4.1 are the most common ones.

Example 1.4.1. Notes and rests

Various note and rest values are shown. Example A shows different types of notes including the breve or double whole note, the whole note, the half note, the quarter note, the eighth note, the sixteenth note, the thirty-second note, and the sixty-fourth note. Example B shows different types of rests include the breve rest or double whole rest, the whole rest, the half rest, the quarter rest, the eighth rest, the sixteenth rest, the thirty-second rest, and the sixty-fourth rest. The most common notes and rests are shown in blue, which include the whole note and rest, the half note and rest, the quarter note and rest, the eighth note and rest, and the sixteenth note and rest.

First, notice a few things about the less-common notes (Example 1.4.1A, in black):

  • The only note value larger than a whole note is the breve, or double whole note.
    • A breve is worth twice as much as a whole note. This is not used very often.
  • The thirty-second note has three flags.
    • A thirty-second note is half the value of a sixteenth note.
    • Because there are so many flags, the length of the stem is extended.
  • The sixty-fourth note has four flags.
    • A sixty-fourth note is half the value of a thirty-second note.
    • Because there are even more flags, the length of the stem is extended even more.

All the rests are equivalent to the notes of the same name (Example 1.4.1B). For example, the half note and the half rest are equal in value. One major difference between notes and rests is their location on the staff. As we saw earlier, notes can move up and down the staff. Rests, however, are set.

  • The breve rest (or double whole rest), whole rest, and half rest are all located in the third space.
    • Students often confuse the whole rest with the half rest. Both rests reside in the third space, but the whole rest hangs down from the fourth line, while the half rest sits on the third line.
  • The quarter rest sits in the middle of the staff.
    • The quarter rest is difficult to draw, so be sure to practice writing it.
  • The eighth rest and sixteenth rest begin in the third space and descend.
    • The sixteenth rest is taller than the eighth rest.
  • The third-second rest and sixty-fourth rest begin in the fourth space and descend.
    • Like the thirty-second note and sixty-fourth note, the thirty-second rest and sixty-fourth rest are extended to be taller.

As already mentioned, silence is as important as sound in music. Listen to Example 1.4.2 and only focus on the rests in Gilda’s part. The translation appears below the Italian lyrics.

Example 1.4.2. Rests: Verdi[3], “Caro nome,” Rigoletto, Act I

Terms we have learned are shown in Verdi's "Caro nome." The singer's part begins with a whole rest, half rest, and quarter rest. Later eighth rests alternate with eighth notes. There is no bar line at the end of this example because the example does not end at the end of a measure.

  • Gilda’s part begins with a whole rest while the orchestra plays.
  • The soprano must be silent even longer, as there is a half rest followed by a quarter rest.
  • In measure 17, eighth notes alternate with eighth rests resulting in silence between each note. Do you notice the silence between the syllables? Does the silence between notes make you interpret her words differently?
  • There is no bar line at the end of this example. This is because the musical example ends before the measure ends. There is more music in this measure, but the example does not include it.

Different rest values are shown. The most common rest values are listed in this image, where each rest is half as long as the previous. The rests are the whole rest, half rest, quarter rest, eighth rest, and sixteenth rest.

Practice 1.4A

Directions:

  • Write the given rests on the staff. Remember that rests must be precisely written on the staff.

Exercise asks to write various rests on a staff with treble clef. The sample asks for an eighth rest and an eighth rest is written on the staff. Number 1 asks for a quarter rest. Number 2 asks for a sixteenth rest. Number 3 asks for a whole rest. Number 4 asks for a breve rest. Number 5 asks for a half rest.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Practice 1.4B

Directions:

  • Fill in the boxes with the appropriate rest.

Exercise asks to write different types of rests and a rest that is worth twice the value. For the first row, write the given rest in the box. For the second row, write the rest that is worth twice the value of the given rest. The sample asks for an eighth rest so an eighth rest is drawn in the first row and a quarter rest is drawn in the second row. Number 1 asks for a half rest. Number 2 asks for a quarter rest. Number 3 asks for a sixteenth rest.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

BASS CLEF  1.5

In addition to the treble clef, the bass clef is also extremely common.

Example 1.5.1. Pitches in the bass clef

A staff with bass clef is shown. From the bottom up, the spaces contain the pitches A, C, E, and G. The lines contain the pitches G, B, D, F, and A. The fourth line is F, which is also where the bass clef symbol begins.

  • The bass clef is the most common clef for lower voices (e.g., tenor and bass) and lower-sounding instruments (e.g., bassoon, tuba, cello).
  • The bass clef is also known as the F clef.
    • The starting point of a bass clef (ball part) falls on the line where the pitch F is. (The fourth line is F.)
    • The two dots surround the line where F is.
    • The shape of the bass clef itself looks like a cursive upper-case F.
  • Notes in the spaces of a staff with a bass clef spell ACEG. You can use a mnemonic device, such as All Cows Eat Grass.
  • Notes in the lines of a staff with a bass clef spell GBDFA. You can use a mnemonic device, such as Gentle Butterflies Don’t Fight Ants.

Again, although these mnemonic devices can help you at first, it is extremely important that you memorize how to read notes quickly. In addition to the notes shown above, you should be fluent with a few extra notes below and above the staff.

Example 1.5.2. Keyboard and bass clef

Pitches in the bass clef shown on a keyboard. The keyboard has notes written in ascending order beginning with E. They are E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, and C. The staff below the key shows that E is the ledger line below the staff. Eighth notes are shown with stems pointing up with a flag to the right until the middle line, which is D. At this point, the stems point down but the flat is still to the right. The pitches ascend until middle C, which is written on the ledger line above the staff.

Just as with the treble clef, the white keys on the piano keyboard follow the musical alphabet, while the notes on the staff alternate between notes on a line and notes in a space. Remember that stems can point up or down, but flags are always placed on the right.

  • Like the treble clef, notes in the second space and below have stems pointing up.
  • Notes on the third line and above have stems pointing down.

Whereas middle C (with one ledger line) was the lowest note in Example 1.3.3. for the treble clef, middle C (with one ledger line) is now the highest note in Example 1.5.2. for the bass clef.

The collection of notes in Example 1.5.2 is what you should be able to write and recognize fluently. Before moving on, be sure that you can identify and write these notes at approximately one per second.

Example 1.5.3 might sound familiar to you from cartoons or commercials. The aria, “Largo al factotum,” comes from Rossini’s opera The Barber of Seville. See how many familiar musical terms you can already identify in this excerpt. The English translation is beneath the Italian text and the pitches are given above the staff in the third system.

Example 1.5.3. Bass clef: Rossini[4], “Largo al factotum della città,” The Barber of Seville, Act I

Terms we have learned shown in Rossini's "Largo al factotum." The staff is the five lines that music is written on. The example begins with quarter rests, an eighth rest, a quarter note, and eighth notes. The first system ends with a bar line. The bass clef is pointed out in the second system. At the end of the example, the ledger line above the staff that shows middle C is pointed out. All the pitch names are also written out in the third system. They are D, D, D, G, G, G, C, C, C, G, G, G, D, D, G, G, G, and C.

Summary box with hints to memorize pitches in bass clef are shown. One ledger line below the staff is E. The eighth note on E has a stem that is to the right of the notehead and is pointed up. The flag is also to the right. Notes ascending from E continue to have stems pointing up until D, which falls on the middle line. The stem is to the left of the notehead and is pointed down, but the flag is still to the right. Notes ascending from D continue to have stems pointing down until middle C, which is located one ledger line above the staff. The spaces of the staff in bass clef spell A, C, E, G, and the lines spell G, B, D, F, A, or Gentle Butterflies Don't Fight Ants.

Practice 1.5A

Directions:

  • Identify the pitches on the staff. Try to identify the pitches as quickly as possible and without aids.

Exercise to identify pitches in the bass clef. The sample is a whole note in the fourth space. The sample's answer is G. Number 1, the note is on the third line. Number 2, the note is in the first space. Number 3, the note is on the fifth line. Number 4, the note is on the fourth line. Number 5, the note is on the first line. Number 6, the note is in the second space. Number 7, the note is on the second line. Number 8, the note is on the ledger line above the staff. Number 9, the note is in the third space. Number 10, the note is in the space below the staff.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Solution
1)  D
2)  A
3)  A
4)  F
5)  G
6)  C
7)  B
8)  C
9)  E
10)  F

Practice 1.5B

Directions:

  • Write the pitches on the staff using eighth notes. Each note should have two answers (a low version and a high version). Try to write pitches as quickly as possible and without aids.

Exercise asking to write eighth notes in the bass clef with a stem pointing up and a stem pointing down. The sample asks for A. The first A is in the first space with a stem pointing up and a flag to the right. The second A is on the fifth line with a stem pointing down and a flag to the right. Number 1 asks for E. Number 2 asks for C. Number 3 asks for F. Number 4 asks for B. Number 5 asks for G.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Practice 1.5C

Directions:

  • Identify the pitches on the staff. Beware of changing clefs.

Exercise asking to identify pitches in both treble clef and bass clef. The sample is on the third line in bass clef. The sample's answer is D. Number 1 is in the first space in treble clef. Number 2 is on the fifth line in bass clef. Number 3 is in the second space in treble clef. Number 4 is on the first line in bass clef. Number 5 is on the third line in treble clef. Number 6 is on the fourth line in bass clef. Number 7 is in the space below the staff in treble clef.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Solution
1)  F
2)  A
3)  A
4)  G
5)  B
6)  F
7)  D

DOTS  1.6

We learned that different notes can have the value of one, which makes other notes worth varying amounts.

Example 1.6.1. Note values

Note values are shown for notes without dots. If a quarter note equals 1, a half note equals 2 and a whole note equals 4.

However, is there a note equal to 3? Yes, there is a note if we use an augmentation dot (or dot).

Example 1.6.2. Note value = 3

Note value is shown for a note worth 3. If a quarter note equals 1, a half note is equal to 2, a dotted half note is equal to 3, and a whole note is equal to 4.

When we add a dot after any note, it becomes a dotted note adds half the value to the note. Add the word “dotted” before the name of the note. For example, a half note becomes a dotted half note. In Example 1.6.2, the dotted half note = 3.

Example 1.6.3. Dotted notes

Explanation of how dots work. A quarter note equals one. Example A shows that a dotted quarter note is equal to 1 and a half because the dot is worth half of 1, which is half. 1 plus half equals 1 and a half. Example B shows that a dotted half note is equal to 3. The whole note is equal to 2 and the dot is worth half of two, which is 1. 2 plus 1 equals 3. Example C shows that the dotted whole note is worth 6. The whole note is worth 4 and the dot is worth half of 4, which is 2. 4 plus 2 equals 6.

  • Example 1.6.3A: A quarter note = 1. For a dotted quarter note, the dot represent half of 1, which is ½. Therefore, 1 + ½ = 1½.
  • Example 1.6.3B: If a quarter note = 1, a half note = 2. For a dotted half note, the dot represents half of 2, which is 1. Therefore, 2 + 1 = 3.
  • Example 1.6.3C: If a quarter note = 1, a whole note = 4. For a dotted whole note, the dot represent half of 4, which is 2. Therefore, 4 + 2 = 6.

Just as with notes without dots, dotted notes vary in value depending on what type of note is equal to one. In Example 1.6.4, the notes that are equal to one are in blue.

Example 1.6.4. Varying note values

Examples of different note values with and without dots. Example A shows that if an eighth note is equal to 1, a dotted eighth note is equal to 1 and a half, a quarter note is equal to 2, a dotted quarter note is equal to 3, a half note is equal to 4, and a dotted half note is equal to 6. Example B shows that if a half note equals 1, a quarter note is equal to one half, a dotted quarter note is equal to three-fourths, a dotted half note is equal to one and a half, a whole note is equal to 2, and a dotted whole note is equal to 3.

  • Example 1.6.4A: If an eighth note = 1, a dotted eighth note = 1½, a dotted quarter note = 3, and a dotted half note = 6.
  • Example 1.6.4B: However, if a half note = 1, a dotted quarter note = ¾, a dotted half note = 1½ and a dotted whole note = 3.

Students often struggle with note value less than one (i.e., notes that require fractions).

Example 1.6.5. Fractions

If a half note is equal to 1, a quarter note is equal to one-half and a dotted quarter note is equal to three-fourths. This is because half of one half is one-fourth. One half plus one fourth is three fourths.

  • If a half note = 1 and a half note is divided into two quarter notes, then a quarter note = ½.
  • A dot adds half the value.
    • If a quarter note = ½, you must find half of ½. Half of ½ is ¼.
    • ½ + ¼ = ¾ (half a pie + a quarter of a pie = three-quarters of a pie)

Dots must be precisely written on the staff.

Example 1.6.6. Dotted notes

Different types of dotted notes are shown in bass clef and how to write them on the staff. The dotted whole note is on the F on the fourth line. Its dot is written above the line. The dotted half note is on the E in the third space. Its dot is written directly next to the notehead in the same space. The dotted quarter note is on the third line. Its dot is written above the line. The dotted eighth note is written in the second space. Its dot is written in the same space, but is farther away from the notehead because of the flag. The dotted sixteenth note is written on the second line. Its dot is in the space above the line but is farther away from the notehead because of the flags. The dotted thirty-second note is written in the first space. Its dots is in the same space but farther away from the notehead because of the flags.

  • For notes on a line, the dot goes in the space above the line on which the notehead sits (see dotted whole note, dotted quarter note, and dotted sixteenth note).
  • For notes in a space, the dot goes directly to the right of the notehead (see dotted half note, dotted eighth note, and dotted thirty-second note).
  • For notes with flags, place the dot farther away from the notehead (see dotted eighth note, dotted sixteenth note, and dotted thirty-second note).

Dot placement might seem insignificant, but it is important.

  • If you draw a dot on a line, it is likely to be hidden and unseen.
  • If you draw a dot in the wrong place, another note might be held out longer than the one you intended.

Example 1.6.7 shows dotted notes in context.

Example 1.6.7.  Dotted notes: Brooman[5], “Den emsamna Makan”

Dotted notes in a real music example. There is a dotted eighth note, dotted quarter note, and dotted half note.


  • Brooman uses three different types of dotted notes: a dotted eighth note, a dotted quarter note, and a dotted half note.
  • The placement of the dot for the dotted eighth note is above the line because the notehead falls on a line. The dots of the other two dotted notes fall in the space directly next to the notehead because the notehead is in a space.

Rests can also have dots and are used exactly the same way. The name of the rest has the word “dotted” added before it. For example, a quarter rest becomes a dotted quarter rest. Occasionally, you may come across two rests in row instead of a dotted rest (e.g., a quarter rest followed by an eighth rest instead of a dotted quarter rest).

Example 1.6.8. Dotted rests

How different dotted rests are written on the staff. The dotted whole rest is in the third space, hanging from the fourth line, with the dot next to it. The dotted half rest is in the third space, sitting on the third line, with the dot next to it. The dotted quarter rest's dot is in the third space. The dotted eighth rest's dot is in the third space. The dotted sixteenth rest's dot is in the third space. The dotted thirty-second rest's dot is in the third space.

Notice the placement of the dots. Recall that for dotted notes, dots vary in placement depending on where the notehead lies. For dotted rests, dots are always placed in the third space (see Example 1.6.8).

Example 1.6.9 shows several dotted rests in context.

Example 1.6.9. Dotted rests: Kinkel[6], “Das Schloss Boncourt”

Example showing different dotted rests in a real music example. There is a dotted half rest, a dotted quarter rest, a quarter rest paired with an eighth rest.

  • After the dotted half note, the example continues with two dotted half rests and one dotted quarter rest.
  • As an alternate to the dotted quarter rest, the example concludes with a quarter rest followed by an eighth rest.
    • In the actual score, the quarter rest and eighth rest appear as a dotted quarter rest. However, it has been written this way because you may come across two rests in a row like this, instead of a dotted rest.

Summary box of note values and dotted note values. Dots add half the value of the note or rest to its total value. If a quarter note equals 1, a dotted quarter note equals 1 and a half and a dotted half note equals 3. If a half note equals 1, a dotted quarter note is equal to three-fourths. If an eighth note equals 1, a dotted eighth note is equal to one and a half and a dotted quarter note is equal to 3.

Practice 1.6

Directions:

  • Based on the given note that equals one, write the note values of the other notes. For a sample, see Example 1.6.4.

Exercise asking how many beats or how much of one beat each dotted note is worth based on the given note that equals 1. In number 1, the quarter note is equal to 1. 1a is a dotted quarter note. 1b is a dotted half note. 1c is a dotted whole note. In number 2, the half note is equal to 1. 2a is a dotted quarter note. 2b is a dotted half note. 3c is a dotted eighth note. In number 3, the eighth note is equal to 1. 3a is a dotted quarter note. 3b is a dotted eighth note. 3b is a dotted half note.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Solution
1a)  11/2
1b)  3
1c)  6
2a)  3/4
2b)  11/2
2c)  3/8
3a)  3
3b)  11/2
3c)  6

GRAND STAFF  1.7

Read the pitches in the following example.

Example 1.7.1. Bass clef example

Pitches in bass clef with additional ledger lines. The dotted half notes are ascending from the F that is on the fourth line on the staff until the G that is 3 ledger lines above the staff. The additional ledger lines are pointed out.

Although the first five notes may be easy to read, the next four may not be as easy. We can add ledger lines to notes higher than middle C in the bass clef, but an easier way to read these notes would be to read the first five notes in the bass clef and the last four notes in the treble clef. We can accomplish this by using a grand staff, which is when the treble clef and bass clef are used together at the same time.

Example 1.7.2. Grand staff

Illustration of grand staff, which is the treble clef and the bass clef at the same time, connected by a brace and bar line. The half notes on the grand staff ascend, beginning on the F on the fourth line in the bass clef. Middle C is shown simultaneously in both clefs. The dotted half notes ascend until G on the second line in the treble clef.

  • It is essential that the grand staff begins with a brace and bar line. (Recall that when we wrote for only treble clef or only bass clef, there was no bar line at the beginning.) The brace and bar line are necessary at the start of a grand staff because both staves[7] must be read at the same time.
  • Without the brace and bar line, the staff with the treble clef would be the first system and the staff with the bass clef would be the second system. In Example 1.7.2, the grand staff makes up one system.
  • The grand staff is most commonly used by keyboard instruments, such as the piano. If you played Example 1.7.2 on the piano, your left hand would play F-G-A-B-C and your right hand would play C-D-E-F-G. You would only play middle C once, however, as it occurs simultaneously in both hands.

Example 1.7.3 is the opening of one of the most famous pieces written for the piano, Beethoven’s “Für Elise.” Ignore the unfamiliar parts for now, and only focus on the grand staff.

Example 1.7.3. Grand staff: Beethoven, “Für Elise,” WoO 59

Music for opening of Beethoven's "Für Elise" is an example of the grand staff.

The grand staff in Example 1.7.3 clearly shows which parts are to be played by the right hand and which parts are to be played by the left hand. The brace and bar line at the start of the grand staff reminds us that both staves are to be read simultaneously.

Grand Staff

The grand staff contains the treble clef and the bass clef. It begins with a brace and a bar line to show that both staves are read simultaneously.

Octave Designation

As you learned, the musical alphabet repeats. It can be confusing and wordy to describe which specific note you are referring to: “The D on the fourth line of the treble clef.” To solve this problem, we use octave designations. Recall that an octave was the same note name eight notes apart. An octave designation is a subscript number placed to the right of the note name to specify exactly how high or low the note sounds (i.e.,where the note is on the keyboard. For example, middle C is also known as C4 (pronounced “C-4”).

Middle C is called C4 because there are eight Cs on a piano keyboard, and middle C is the fourth C. The lowest C is called C1, the next higher one is called C2, and so on. C4 is located approximately at the middle of the keyboard. “The D on the fourth line of the treble clef” would simply be referred to as D5.

Example 1.7.4. Octave designations

Pitches on the grand staff with octave designations. The lowest pitch has 2 ledger lines below the bass clef. This note is C2. The notes ascend C2, D2, E2, F2, G2, A2, B2 then C3. From there, C3 ascends to D3, E3, F3, G3, A3, B3 then C4. C4 is shown in both the bass clef and treble clef. In the treble clef, C4 ascends to B4, then C5 ascends to B5. The example ends with C6, which has two ledger lines above the staff. There is a box around B4 and C5 to show how octave designations change between B and C.

Octave designations go as low as A0 and as high as C8 because a piano keyboard has 88 keys. However, the octave designations in Example 1.7.4 are the ones most commonly used.

Although the musical alphabet repeats after G (i.e., A-B-C-D-E-F-G-A…), the musical alphabet using octave designations changes with every C.

  • This means that with every C, the octave designation is one number higher.
  • In Example 1.7.4, observe the two pitches in the box (B4 and C5). B4 did not go to C4 because C4 is middle C, which is below B4. The note above B4 is C5.
  • After Bx, the next note is Cx+1.

Octave Designation

•  In order to know the exact pitch you are referring to, we use an octave designation.
•  An octave designation is a subscript number to the right of the note name.
•  Octave designation numbers change with C, so after B3 comes C4.

Practice 1.7A

Directions:

  • Identify the pitches on the staff with octave designations. Be aware that the clef changes.

Exercise asking to identify pitches with octave designations. Numbers 1 through 3 are in the bass clef. The sample is on the fourth line and the sample's answer is F3. Number 1 is on the first line. Number 2 is in the space above the staff. Number 3 is on the third line. Numbers 4 through 7 are in the treble clef. Number 4 is in the first space. Number 5 is in the third space. Number 6 is in the space below the staff. Number 7 is in the fourth space.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Solution
1)  G2
2)  B3
3)  D3
4)  F4
5)  C5
6)  D4
7)  E5

Octave Signs

When writing notes below C2 or above C6, it is much easier to use octave signs rather than adding multiple ledger lines. Octave signs tell you to perform pitches an octave (or two) higher or lower than written.

Example 1.7.5. Octave signs above

High treble clef pitches using octave signs. The example begins with C5 and ascends to C6. At D6, the D appears to be D5 but the Ottava sign (8, v, a) is written above, which tells the musician the note is actually an octave higher. The notes ascend to C7. At D7, the D again appears to be D5 but the quindicesmia sign (15, m, a) is written above, which tells the musician the note is actually two octaves higher. The notes ascend to C8.

  • Ottava :  8va (ottava alta, or “octave above”) is written above and is followed by a dotted line to indicate which notes are to be performed an octave higher than they appear.
  • Quindicesima : 15ma (“at the fifteenth”) is written above and is followed by a dotted line to indicate which notes are to be performed two octaves higher than they appear.

Without octave signs, you would need nine ledger lines to write C8! Octave signs below can be written the same way.

Example 1.7.6. Octave signs below

Low notes in the bass clef using octave signs. The example begins with C3 and descends to C2. At B1, the B appears to be B2 but the Ottava sign (8, v, a) is written below, which tells the musician the note is actually an octave lower. The notes descend to C1. At B0, the B again appears to be B2 but the quindicesmia sign (15, m, a) is written below, which tells the musician the note is actually two octaves lower. The notes descend to A0.

  • Ottava: 8va is written below and is followed by a dotted line to indicate which notes are to be performed an octave lower than they appear.
  • Quindicesima: 15ma is written below and is followed by a dotted line to indicate which notes are to be performed two octaves lower than they appear.
  • Other ways to indicate an octave below is to write 8vb (ottava bassa or “octave below”) or 8va bassa below the notes.

Example 1.7.7 shows the opening of Grieg’s famous Piano Concerto. Although there are a few items that may be unfamiliar to you, there are some new concepts we just learned. In particular, notice how Grieg is able to cover seven octaves on the piano in only three measures!

Example 1.7.7. Grieg[8], Piano Concerto No. 1 in A Minor, Op. 16, i

Opening of Grieg's Piano Concerto. There are a number of terms introduced in this section and chapter, including the grand staff and the octave sign above the treble clef. The octave sign makes the first highest note in the treble clef A7 and the octave sign continues for over a measure. The bottom part of the grand staff begins with the bass clef but soon changes to the treble clef. The bass clef returns halfway in the next measure. This examples shows seven octaves of A's: A7, A6, A5, A4, A3, A2, and A1.

A concerto is a work for a soloist and orchestra. Example 1.7.7 begins with a measure of rest because the orchestra is performing (which is not shown), while the pianist waits. When the piano begins, the octave sign indicates that the highest note is an octave higher than A6. The example identifies the different As in different octaves.

Because the piano begins so high, the left hand’s part does not start with a bass clef, but rather, a treble clef. Although the grand staff typically begins with treble and bass clef, it is not uncommon to see two treble clefs (or two bass clefs). The bass clef makes its return halfway through the example, when the pianist’s left hand starts to move below the middle of the keyboard.

Summary box of octave signs. Rather than writing numerous ledger lines that are difficult to read, it is easier to add an octave sign above notes as 8, v, a, or below notes as 8, v, b. Octave signs indicate that notes are an octave higher or lower than they appear.

Practice 1.7B

Directions:

  • In the staves below, write a grand staff and end with a double bar line.
  • Using dotted eighth notes, write the given notes on the grand staff. Separate each example with a bar line.
    • Add an octave sign if you exceed two ledger lines.

Two blank staves are given. Number 1, D4. Number 2, F2. Number 3, B5. Number 4, C5. Number 5, E3. Number 6, B2. Number 7, G1. Number 8, F7. Number 9, A0. Number 10, E6.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

ARTICULATION MARKS  1.8

Example 1.8.1 only contains quarter notes. However, not all these quarter notes are performed the same. This is because of the articulation marks, which are symbols applied to notes that tells the musician how to perform them.

Example 1.8.1. Articulation marks

Illustration of different types of articulation marks. They are staccato, staccatissimo, accent, marcato, tenuto, fermata, and slur.

  • Staccato: Notes performed short.
  • Staccatissimo: Notes performed even shorter than a staccato.
  • Accent: Notes performed loud.
  • Marcato: Notes performed even louder than an accent.
  • Tenuto: Notes held out to their full value.
  • Fermata: Notes held out longer than their full value.
  • Slur: Notes held out to their full value with minimal silence between notes.

Notice that articulation marks are placed directly above or below the notehead, on the opposite side of the stem. The exceptions are the marcato and fermata, which are always placed above the note when there is only one voice.

Many of the words we use in music are Italian. When we use words in other languages, the words are italicized (e.g., tenuto). When we use words in English, the words are not italicized (e.g., accent).

There are several articulation marks that are not symbols, but abbreviations These are the sforzando markings, which are the same as accents.

Example 1.8.2. Sforzando

Abbreviations of different types of sforzando marking variations, including F-Z, S-F, S-F-Z, and S-F-F-Z.

Sforzando is an articulation mark that means the note is to be accented (played loudly). The different letter abbreviations vary from forzato, forzando, and sforzato.  The two abbreviations in blue in Example 1.8.2 are the two ways sforzando markings are most commonly seen.

Example 1.8.3 illustrates several different articulation marks in a short three-measure except.

Example 1.8.3. Farrenc[9], “Souvenir des Huguenots”

There are staccatos and accents in this example. The example ends with a staccatissimo marking and sforzando marking.

  • Most of the notes are to be played staccato (short).
  • In measure 6, there are accents on the quarter notes, which should be louder.
  • In the last measure, there is a staccatissimo symbol (very short) as well as a sforzando symbol, which should be accented even louder.

Articulation Marks

Articulation marks are symbols that specify details about how to perform a note.

Practice 1.8

Directions:

  • Using quarter notes, write the given notes with articulations on the grand staff.

Exercises asking to write different types of articulation marks on given notes on a grand staff. Number 1 asks for E4 with staccatissimo. Number 2 asks for A3 with marcato. Number 3 asks for F5 with staccato. Number 4 asks for C2 with tenuto. Number 5 asks for B4 with accent. Number 6 asks for D3 with fermata. Number 7 asks for F4, A4, and C5 with a slur. Number 8 asks for G3, F3, and E3 with a slur.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

SUMMARY

      1. Musical sounds are represented by notes and silence is represented by rests.  [1.1]
      2. The parts of a note include the notehead, stem, and flag. [1.1]
      3. There are different types of notes including the whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth note, and sixteenth note. [1.2]
      4. Each note can equal one, which determines the value of other notes. [1.2]
      5. Music is written on a musical staff. [1.3, 1.4, 1.7]
        • The treble clef is used for higher-sounding voices/instruments.
        • The bass clef is used for lower-sounding voices/instruments.
        • The treble clef and bass clef occur simultaneously in the grand staff.
      6. There can be notes outside the staff. [1.7]
        • If the notes occur just outside the staff, we use ledger lines.
        • If the notes occur way beyond the staff, we use octave signs.
      7. Rests behave just as notes, but represent silence. [1.4]
      8. Dots add half the value of the note or rest to the note or rest. [1.6]
      9. Octave designations are subscript numbers that indicate exactly how high or low the pitch sounds. [1.7]
      10. Articulation marks (staccato, staccatissimo, accent, marcato, tenuto, fermata, slur) are symbols that tell the musician how to perform notes. [1.8]

TERMS

  1. Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel (1805-1847) was a German composer and pianist. Her brother was also a composer (Felix Mendelssohn). ↵
  2. Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) was a German composer. ↵
  3. Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) was an Italian composer. ↵
  4. Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868) was an Italian composer. ↵
  5. Hanna Brooman (1809-1887) was a Swedish composer. ↵
  6. Johanna Kinkel (1810-1858) was a German composer and writer. ↵
  7. The plural of staff is staves. ↵
  8. Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) was a Norwegian composer and pianist. ↵
  9. Louise Farrenc (1804-1875) was a French composer and pianist. ↵
definition

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