Now that you have learned about intervals, we will learn about how to read and write for transposing instruments—instruments whose written pitch differs from their concert pitch.^[1] We will also learn about the four different types of texture.

10.1  INTRODUCTION

The instruments we have seen in musical examples until now have all been instruments in C (or C instruments). For instruments in C, the note musicians see and perform is the same note we hear. Some instruments in C include the piano, all strings (e.g., violin, viola, and cello), flutes, oboes, bassoons, and percussion instruments.

One version of Farrenc’s Trio for Piano, Violin, and Cello is written for three C instruments (Example 10.1.1).

Example 10.1.1. Instruments in C: Farrenc^[2], Trio for Piano, Violin, and Cello, Op. 44, iii – Minuetto. Allegro

Because the violin, cello, and piano are instruments in C, every note you see (called written pitch) is the same as what you hear (called concert pitch).

Farrenc composed the trio for either violin or clarinet. Now observe Example 10.1.2. What do you notice about the key signatures of the different instruments?

Example 10.1.2. Key signature: Farrenc, Trio for Piano, Violin, and Cello, Op. 44, iii – Minuetto. Allegro

The key signature for the clarinet is different. The clarinet’s key signature has one flat, while the cello’s and piano’s key signatures have three flats. How is this possible?

Now look at the clarinet’s opening pitch compared to the pitches occurring at the same time in the cello and piano.

• The clarinet’s pitch is A.
• The cello’s pitches are E-flat, B-flat, and G.
• The piano’s pitches are E-flat, G, and B-flat.

Notice that the clarinet’s A is unlike the other notes. Indeed, if you were to hold out E-flat, G, and B-flat, then play A on the piano, it would sound out of place. Listen to what this would sound like:

The reason why the clarinet’s key signature and pitch do not match the other instruments is because the clarinet in B-flat is not an instrument in C, but rather, a transposing instrument. Transposing instruments are those whose music on the printed page (written pitch) and actual sound (concert pitch) are different.

Refer back to Example 10.1.2. Because the clarinet in B-flat is a transposing instrument, the clarinet’s A does not sound like A: it sounds like G. This time, compare this G to the notes in the cello and piano: E-flat, G, and B-flat. The clarinet’s G now fits in with the other instruments. Now listen to what this would sound like:

In addition, if we compare the clarinet’s part in Example 10.1.2 to the violin’s part in Example 10.1.1, we see that the two instruments are playing the same concert pitches (i.e., both begin on G₄).

You may wonder why there are transposing instruments. Part of it has to do with history, but much has to do with ease for performers.

• When instrumentalists learn a fingering for an instrument, they can transfer the same fingering to other instruments in its family.
  • For example, someone playing the clarinet in B-flat would generally use the same fingerings when playing not only the clarinet in A, but also the clarinet in C, the clarinet in D, and the clarinet in E-flat. Without transposing instruments, clarinetists would be expected to learn different fingerings for each instrument.
• Using transposing instruments lessens the need for pitches on the extreme ends of a staff—it reduces the necessity for multiple ledger lines.

Transposing instruments do not create any extra work for the performers: musicians play what they see, but a different sound comes out. However, transposing instruments create extra work for the analyst (you) as well as the composer (you).

10.2  READING TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS

Now that we know what transposing instruments are, we must learn how to interpret them. For this, we use our knowledge of intervals.

If a clarinet in B-flat plays  C₄, you will hear B-flat₃ (and not C₄). This means that for every note in the clarinet’s part, you will hear a pitch that is a major second lower. Returning to the Farrenc trio, we can now put the clarinet’s concert pitches below the written pitches to compare.

Example 10.2.1. Written pitch versus concert pitch for the clarinet in B-flat from Example 10.1.2

Every concert pitch is a major second lower than every written pitch. Every pitch is also the same as the violin’s part from Example 10.1.1, which is an instrument in C.

You cannot use enharmonic equivalents for transposing instruments. For example, the pitch marked with an asterisk in Example 10.2.1A is an F. A major second below F is E-flat (shown in Example 10.2.1B) and not D-sharp. This is because the interval is a major second below and as we learned with intervals, the number must be precise. D-sharp is a diminished third below F. Moreover, recall that the other instruments were playing E-flat, G, and B-flat: D-sharp does not make sense with these notes.

To help us figure out concert pitches for transposing instruments, we can use a transposing instrument chart template (Example 10.2.2).

Example 10.2.2. Transposing instrument chart template

Example 10.2.2 is a template because the four boxes in dark blue with white font will always be the same for all transposing instrument charts.

• Example 10.2.2A: In the first row of the first column, always write “C” because transposing instruments are named based on the note that sounds when they play C.
  • The written pitch is what the instrumentalist plays or what the analyst sees.
  • Hint: “See” and “C” are homophones–they will always be in the first column.
• Example 10.2.2B: In the first row of the second column, always write the key of the transposing instrument. For example, for a trumpet in B-flat, write “B-flat,” and for a horn in F, write “F.”
  • The concert pitch is the note you hear. A trumpet in B-flat is called a trumpet in B-flat because when they play C, you hear B-flat.
• Example 10.2.2C: Figure out the interval from C down to the concert pitch and write the interval in the box.
  • The majority of instruments sound lower than their written pitch. Although you can use the inversion and flip the descending interval into an ascending one, it is better (and correct) to get into the right habit of writing the precise transposition.
  • Later, we will learn about instruments whose concert pitch are higher than their written pitch.

Example 10.2.3 shows why a transposing instrument chart is not necessary for instruments in C, such as the flute, cello, or piano.

Example 10.2.3. Transposing instrument chart for instruments in C

Because instruments in C have the same concert pitch and written pitch, there is no need to use a transposing instrument chart. Now we will create a transposing instrument chart for a clarinet in B-flat (Example 10.2.4).

Example 10.2.4. Transposing instrument chart for clarinet in B-flat

• Example 10.2.4A:
  • This row tells us the interval at which we need to transpose.
  • In the “See (C)” column, always write C first. This is easy to remember because of the homophones.
  • In the “Hear” column, always write the key of the transposing instrument. For example, for a clarinet in B-flat, you would write B-flat under the “Hear” column.
  • From these two notes, figure out the relationship: B-flat is a major second lower than C.
    • Although B-flat is also a minor seventh above C, the sound of the clarinet in B-flat is a major second below C. It is best to learn the exact transpositions of the most common instruments. If it helps, write C₄ in the first box and B-flat₃ in the second box.
    • A shortcut for a major second lower is that the concert pitch sounds a whole step lower. Just be aware that it must be a major second and not a diminished third (or augmented unison).
• Example 10.2.4B:
  • In this row, it shows that you see a B-flat in the clarinet’s part. Because the clarinet sounds a major second lower, the note you would hear is an A-flat.
  • This is where students most commonly make an error: They will accidentally think that if a clarinet in B-flat plays B-flat, you hear a C. Remember to always keep C in the “See (C)” column.
• Example 10.2.4C:
  • In this row, it shows that you see an E in the clarinet in B-flat’s part. Because the clarinet in B-flat sounds a major second lower, the note you would hear is a D.
• Example 10.2.4D:
  • In this row, it shows that you see a G-sharp in the clarinet in B-flat’s part. Because the clarinet in B-flat sounds a major second lower, the note you would hear is an F-sharp (and not a G-flat).

For all transposing instruments, the instrument’s name tells you the key of the instrument—that is, the interval at which to transpose. For example, in addition to the clarinet in B-flat, there is also a clarinet in A. Compare the transposing instrument chart for the clarinet in B-flat (Example 10.2.4) to the clarinet in A (Example 10.2.5).

Example 10.2.5. Transposing instrument chart for the clarinet in A

• Example 10.2.5A:
  • In the “See (C)” column, write a C as always.
  • In the “Hear” column, write the name of the transposing instrument. For a clarinet in A, you would write A under the “Hear” column.
  • From these two notes, figure out the relationship: A is a minor third below C.
    • Although A is also a major sixth above C, the sound of the clarinet in A is a minor third below C. It is best to learn how to identify descending intervals quickly. If it helps, write C₄ in the first box and A₃ in the second box.
    • A shortcut for a minor third lower is that it is the relative minor.
• Example 10.2.5B:
  • In this row, it shows that you see a B-flat in the clarinet in A’s part. Because the clarinet in A sounds a minor third lower, the note you would hear is a G.
• Example 10.2.5C:
  • In this row, it shows that you see an E in the clarinet in A’s part. Because the clarinet in A sounds a minor third lower, the note you would hear is a C-sharp.
• Example 10.2.5D:
  • In this row, it shows that you see a G-sharp in the clarinet in A’s part. Because the clarinet in A sounds a minor third lower, the note you would hear is an E-sharp.
  • Once again, you cannot use enharmonic equivalents for transposing instruments. No matter how much you think writing F is easier or better than writing E-sharp, F would be incorrect because it is not a minor third below G-sharp but instead an augmented second.

There are many transposing instruments, but as a music theory textbook, we cannot cover each one in detail. Instead, this chapter will help you with the steps to finding the concert pitches for instruments based on their name (e.g., saxophone in E-flat). As already mentioned, although there are some transposing instruments whose concert pitches sound higher than their written pitches, the concert pitches of the most common instruments sound lower. Example 10.2.4 shows several of the most common transposing instruments in addition to the clarinet in B-flat.

Example 10.2.6. Other common transposing instruments

• Example 10.2.6A:
  • Like the clarinet, there are different types of trumpets. Also like the clarinet, the trumpet in B-flat is the most common one. If you see “trumpet” without a key following its name, you can assume that it refers to a trumpet in B-flat.
  • The concert pitch of the trumpet sounds a major second below the written pitch.
• Example 10.2.6B:
  • When you only see “saxophone,” it is assumed to be the alto saxophone in E-flat.
  • The concert pitch of the saxophone sounds a major sixth below the written pitch.
• Example 10.2.6C:
  • When you only see “horn,” it is assumed to be the horn in F.
  • The concert pitch of the horn sounds a perfect fifth below the written pitch.

Beach’s Pastorale Wind Quintet includes two transposing instruments (Example 10.2.7).

Example 10.2.7. Transposing instruments: Beach^[3], Pastorale Wind Quintet

We can immediately tell that the clarinet in B-flat and the horn in F are transposing instruments for two reasons:

• The names themselves (“in B-flat” and “in F”) tell us that these are not instruments in C. Therefore, they are transposing instruments.
• The key signatures are different from those instruments in C (i.e., the flute, oboe, and bassoon). Because the key signatures are different, we know these are transposing instruments.

Recall that the written pitches are the notes you read on the page, and the concert pitches are the notes you hear. In Example 10.2.7, the concert pitches are shown above the written pitches for the clarinet and horn.

• The concert pitches for the clarinet’s part sound a major second lower.
• The concert pitches for the horn’s part sound a perfect fifth lower.

Many scores are written in other languages. In particular, they may be in German, Italian, French, or Spanish. Observe the instruments listed in Beethoven’s Wind Octet (Example 10.2.8).

Example 10.2.8. Instruments in German: Beethoven^[4], Wind Octet, Op. 103, i – Allegro

While most instruments, such as the Klarinette, are obvious cognates, Fagotto may appear unfamiliar. Fagotto refers to the bassoon.

There are several important things to remember when looking at a score in German.

• In German, B refers to B-flat.
  • This is often confusing to students, but if you remember that the clarinet is most commonly in B-flat (and not in B), this should help.
  • In German, H refers to B. For example, Bach’s Mass in B Minor in German is Messe in H-Moll (Moll is the German word for minor).
• In German, Es refers to E-flat.
  • With the exception of B-flat, all other flatted notes in German add -s or -es.
    • When the letter is a vowel, -s is added. For example, Schubert’s Mass in A-flat major in German is Messe in As-Dur (Dur is the German word for major).
    • When the letter is a consonant, -es is added. For example, Schubert’s Impromptu in Ges-Dur is in G-flat Major.
  • All sharped notes in German add -is (e.g., Pejačević’s Sinfonie in Fis-Moll is her Symphony in F-sharp Minor.

This list above may seem overwhelming. The most important things to remember for transposing instruments in German is that German B refers to B-flat and Es refers to E-flat.

In the Romance languages (e.g., French, Italian, and Spanish), the names of transposing instruments use solfège. In particular, they use fixed do. Recall that with fixed do, solfège syllables are always affiliated with pitch names:

• C = do (can also use ut)
• D = re
• E = mi
• F = fa
• G = sol
• A = la
• B = si

There are a few differences from the solfège we learned in earlier chapters.

• Rather than using the solfège syllable do, composers will sometimes use ut (e.g., Vivaldi’s Concerto in Do Minore or Bizet’s Symphonie en Ut Majeur).
• Instead of ti, the syllable si is exclusively used (e.g., Debussy’s Symphonie en Si Mineur).

Compare how different the instruments are listed in a French score (Example 10.2.9) as opposed to a German score (Example 10.2.8).

Example 10.2.9. Instruments in French: Pfeiffer^[5], Pastorale, Op. 71

Three of the instruments on the French score are cognates (Flûte, Clarinette, and Basson). The Cor is a horn and the Hautbois refers to the oboe. Based on the instruments’ names and the different key signatures, we see there are two transposing instruments.

• The Clarinette en La refers to the clarinet in A. Concert pitches sound a minor third lower than written pitches.
• The Cor en Mi refers to the horn in E. Concert pitches sound a minor sixth lower than written pitches.

For transposing instruments whose pitch name includes an accidental, such as clarinet in B-flat, the accidental (not the word) is generally added to the solfège syllable (Example 10.2.10).

Example 10.2.10. Si-flat: Grandval^[6], Two Pieces for Clarinet and Piano, No. 2, “Air Slave”

In Example 10.2.10, we see that si-flat refers to B-flat. Similarly, mi-flat would refer to E-flat. Accidentals in the key names of the Romance languages vary slightly from the names of transposing instruments. For example, in French, Saint-Saëns’s Quartet in B-flat Major is not “Quotour en Si-flat,” but rather, “Quotour en Si bémol.”

There are many great books, websites, and resources that go into detail about all the different instruments, their names in various languages, and their transpositions.^[7] The goal of this section is to be an introduction to figuring out basic transposing instruments.

10.3  KEY SIGNATURES

Recall that the trumpet in B-flat is the most common type of trumpet. Because of this, the trumpet is sometimes listed as simply “trumpet.” Similarly, the clarinet in B-flat may also be labeled as only “clarinet.” When this is the case, you may need to rely on the key signature. As you learned, you can quickly identify transposing instruments on a score because their key signatures will not match. Compare the key signatures for the clarinet and the other C instruments in Example 10.3.1.

Example 10.3.1. Key signatures: Amalia^[9], Divertimento, Adagio

How can we figure out the required transposition for transposing instruments by referring to the key signature? Take it step by step:

1. The piano, viola, and cello are all instruments in C. Based on their parts, the key is B-flat major.
2. The clarinet’s part has no sharps or flats, which belongs to C major.
3. C major is a major second above B-flat major.
4. This means that the clarinet’s written part is a major second higher and the clarinet’s concert pitch is a major second lower. Therefore, the key signature of C major belongs to the clarinet in B-flat.

For the clarinet, when we found the concert pitch based on the written pitch, we transposed a major second lower. To find the key signature, we need to go in the opposite direction: a major second higher. This is because every note needs to be written a major second higher in order to sound a major second lower.

Find the key signatures for the following transposing instruments based on the violin’s key signature of C major (Example 10.3.2).

Example 10.3.2. Write the key signatures

• Example 10.3.2A: The key signature of the violin, a C instrument, is C major.
• Example 10.3.2B: A trumpet in B-flat sounds a major second lower, so its key signature must be a major second higher than C major’s. A major second higher than C major is D major.
• Example 10.3.2C: A clarinet in A sounds a minor third lower, so its key signature must be a minor third higher than C major’s. A minor third higher than C major is E-flat major.
• Example 10.3.2D: A saxophone in E-flat sounds a major sixth lower, so its key signature must be a major sixth higher than C major’s. A major sixth higher than C major is A major.

The key signatures from Example 10.3.2 are shown in Example 10.3.3.

Example 10.3.3. Answers to Example 10.3.2.

Now we will go in the opposite direction and figure out the key of transposing instruments based on their key signatures (Example 10.3.4). We will use minor key signatures because the process is the same.

Example 10.3.4. Finding the key of transposing instruments

• Example 10.3.4A: The key signature is D minor.
• Example 10.3.4B: The key signature is that of F minor.
  • Because F minor is a minor third above D, the transposing instrument is a minor third below C, which is A.
  • Therefore, this is the key signature for an instrument in A.
• Example 10.3.4C: The key signature is that of A minor.
  • Because A minor is a perfect fifth above D, the transposing instrument is a perfect fifth below C, which is F.
  • Therefore, this is the key signature for an instrument in F.
• Example 10.3.4D: The key signature is that of B minor.
  • Because B minor is a major sixth above D, the transposing instrument is a major sixth below C, which is E-flat.
  • Therefore, this is the key signature for an instrument in E-flat.

Most transposing instrument will include the transposition in their name (e.g., horn in E-flat). However, occasionally you will see a transposing instrument that does not give you the transposition in its name. You will know it is a transposing instrument because the key signature does not match, so you will need to figure out the transposition (unless you have the transposition memorized for that instrument). See the English horn’s (Cor Anglais) part in Example 10.3.5.

Example 10.3.5. English horn: Berlioz^[10], Symphonie Fantastique, Op. 14, iii – Scene aux champs – Andante (In the Country)

Assuming you do not know the transposition for the English horn, let’s use the key signature to figure it out.

• We know that the flute and oboe (hautbois) are instruments in C. Their key signature has one flat, which is F major.
• The English horn’s key signature has no sharps or flats, which is C major. The relationship between F major and C major is that C major is a perfect fifth above F major.
• Since notes in the English horn must be written a perfect fifth higher than C, this means that the English horn must be transposed a perfect fifth lower. Therefore, the English horn is in F, where notes sound a perfect fifth lower than written.

Sometimes the key signature is of no help. Historically, different horns used various crooks to produce sound. As a result, the horn’s part often omits any key signature. While Example 10.3.5 only showed the woodwinds, we now look at the entire score a little later in the same movement (Example 10.3.6).

Example 10.3.6. Complete score: Berlioz, Symphonie Fantastique, Op. 14, iii – Scene aux champs – Andante (In the Country)

• The woodwinds (flutes, oboes, clarinets in B-flat, and bassoons) are bracketed together at the top of the score.
• All the instruments with the key signature of one flat (D minor) are instruments in C.
• The clarinets in B-flat sound a major second lower than written, so their key signature must be a major second above D minor (i.e., E minor).
• The horns are bracketed together.
• Notice that none of the parts for horns have key signatures.
• Horns I and II are in F (Fa); Horn III is in E-flat (Mi-flat); and Horn IV is in C (Ut).
• There are two timpani: one tuned to F (Fa) and one tuned to B-flat (Si-flat).
• The strings are bracketed at the bottom of the score.
• Although the strings include three different clefs, they are all instruments in C (as you can tell by the key signatures).

Even though the horns are transposing instruments, you cannot tell by the key signature. Instead, for the horns, rely on their names (e.g., horn in F).

In Example 10.3.6, it may appear that the cellos (Violoncelles) and double basses (Contre-Basses) are playing in unison. Although the double bass is an instrument in C, it is a transposing instrument in that its concert pitch is an octave lower than its written pitch. This is due to convenience, as writing their concert pitch would often require multiple ledger lines. There are several instruments in C whose concert pitch is either an octave lower or an octave higher (Example 10.3.7).

Example 10.3.7. Transposing instruments in C

• Example 10.3.7A: The double bass, also called the contrabass, sounds an octave lower than written.
• Example 10.3.7B: The guitar’s part is written in treble clef and sounds an octave lower than written.
• Example 10.3.7C: The celeste, or celesta, is also called a bell-piano and sounds an octave higher than written.
• Example 10.3.7D: The piccolo, a small-sized flute, sounds an octave higher than written.

Instruments in C that transpose an octave higher or lower due often do so due to convenience. Take for instance, the piccolo’s solo in Example 10.3.8.

Example 10.3.8. Piccolo: Sousa^[11], “The Stars and Stripes Forever”

The first written pitch is E-flat₆ but its concert pitch is an octave higher: E-flat₇. Imagine how many ledger lines it would require to write this part. Or how cluttered it would appear to constantly write 8va above everything. The fact that the piccolo always sounds an octave higher than its written pitch is indeed a convenience.

As you can see, many of the things we learned in earlier chapters are necessary in order to understand transposing instruments. You will find that as we learn more about music theory, these fundamentals will not go away. Be sure to continually brush up on the fundamentals including key signatures and intervals.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

10.4  WRITING FOR TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS

We learned that when reading music for transposing instruments, we need to transpose the written pitch by a certain interval to find the concert pitch. Example 10.4.1 shows the most common band instruments and the interval of their transposition.

Example 10.4.1. Common band transposing instruments

Notice that the tenor saxophone sounds a compound major second lower that what is written. A compound major second is an octave plus a major second, also known as a major ninth.

If you ever played in a band, you may recall hearing the conductor asking for everyone to tune to concert B-flat. For the C instruments, such as the flutes, they will simply play B-flat. However, for all transposing instruments, they will need to play a different pitch. Example 10.4.2 shows the same instruments from Example 10.4.1, and what they would need to play to tune to B-flat.

Example 10.4.2. Tuning to concert B-flat

The chart in Example 10.4.2 shows us that for an alto saxophone to tune to B-flat, they must play a G (since their concert pitch sounds a major six lower). For the tenor saxophone, although their concert pitch sounds a major ninth lower, when tuning to a generic B-flat, they simply need to play a C, which is a major second higher than B-flat.

When writing for transposing instruments, you must go in the opposite direction than for reading. For example, if you want to write a B-flat for the alto saxophone, you must write the saxophone’s part a major sixth higher because it will sound a major sixth lower than written.

Let’s write a simple melody for a saxophone in E-flat. Example 10.4.3 shows the concert pitches of “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” in B-flat major.

Example 10.4.3. “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star”

Follow these steps when writing the melody in Example 10.4.3 for the alto saxophone.

1. The alto saxophone sounds a major sixth lower than its written pitch.
2. In order to write for the saxophone, the notes must appear a major sixth higher than the concert pitch.
3. A major sixth above B-flat is G.
4. Therefore, the key signature will be G major and the starting pitch will be G₄ (Example 10.4.4).

Example 10.4.4. “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” for saxophone in E-flat

Now let’s write the same melody in B-flat from Example 10.4.3 for a horn in F. This time, we will not use a key signature.

1. The horn in F sounds a perfect fifth lower than its written pitch.
2. In order to write for the horn, the notes must appear on the page a perfect fifth higher than the concert pitch.
3. A perfect fifth above B-flat is F.
4. This time, we will not add a key signature and simply write our melody in F major with accidentals. Our starting pitch will be F₄ (Example 10.4.5).

Example 10.4.5. “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” for horn in F

What if you are asked to write “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star” in B-flat major for a flutist and gave them Example 10.4.6?

Example 10.4.6. “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” for flute?

You would most likely have an angry flutist. First, the flutist may not be as comfortable with the bass clef. More importantly, Example 10.4.6 is out of range for the flute. A range is how low to how high a person can play an instrument or can sing.

Let’s look at the general range of a clarinet in B-flat, which is approximately from E₃ to G₆ (Example 10.4.7).

Example 10.4.7. Range of a clarinet in B-flat

• Example 10.4.7A: When writing for a college-level clarinet student, the written range is E₃ to G₆.
• Example 10.4.7B: The concert pitches (the notes you hear) for the range of a clarinet in B-flat is D₃ to F₆.

Ranges vary depending on the musician (and textbook). A beginning student will have a smaller range, while advanced clarinets can reach up to C₇. When writing for any instrument or voice, it is always safest to avoid the extremes.^[12] For vocalists, the most common part of a range in a song is called the tessitura. It does not include the extremes.

A range is divided into registers. A register is a portion of the range based on high, middle, or low. Example 10.4.8 shows the different registers for a clarinet in B-flat.

Example 10.4.8. Registers of a clarinet in B-flat

• Example 10.4.8A: The low, middle, and high registers for the clarinet in B-flat are shown as written pitches (i.e., what you would see).
• Example 10.4.8B: The low, middle, and high registers for the clarinet in B-flat are shown as concert pitches (i.e., what you would hear).

Range and register are not the same. While Example 10.4.7 illustrated the range of the clarinet, Example 10.4.8 showed the various registers.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

10.5  TEXTURE

In Example 10.3.5, Berlioz’s movement from Symphonie Fantastique began with an English horn followed by an oboe. Later, other instruments enter as more than one instrument perform at a time. In addition to instrumentation, composers can also create variety with musical texture (or simply texture). Texture refers to how many melodies are performed, and what else is happening at the same time. There are four different types of musical texture:

• Monophony
• Homophony
• Polyphony
• Heterophony

Monophony

The single use of the English horn followed by the oboe in Example 10.3.5 are examples of monophony. Monophony is when one (or all) instruments or voices perform the same melody at the unison or octaves. The clearest example of monophonic texture is when there is only one voice or line, such as in Example 10.5.1.

Example 10.5.1. Monophony: Opening melody from Mozart^[13], Piano Quartet No. 1 in G Minor, K. 478, i – Allegro

Whether there is one violinist or one hundred violinists performing at the same time, it would still be considered monophony because there is one melody with the same pitches and the same rhythm.

Moreover, if a group of instruments or vocalists perform the melody in several octaves, it would still be considered monophony. Monophonic music can be quite dramatic, as seen in Example 10.5.2.

Example 10.5.2. Monophony: Opening from Mozart, Piano Quartet No. 1 in G Minor, K. 478, i – Allegro

In Example 10.5.2, four different instruments are playing in unisons or octaves covering three octaves. It is still considered monophonic because they all have the same melody in the same rhythm using the same notes (even though they are in different octaves).

At the start of this movement, three string instruments and the piano play forte, allegro, and in unison or octaves. The dynamic opening is quite energetic, as you can imagine four people, varying from children to adults, yelling at you in unison: “Duck! Cover your head!” This would make your heart race more than one person saying that to you.

If non-pitched percussion instruments (such as a drum set) were to join the ensemble, it would still be considered monophony, such as in Example 10.5.3.

Example 10.5.3. Monophony: “Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star” for clarinet, horn, and bass drum

In Example 10.5.3, the addition of the bass drum does not change the music from being monophonic because the percussion instrument is unpitched. However, if the percussion instrument was pitched (such as the marimba or steelpan) and if it played different pitches or a different rhythm, then the music would no longer be monophonic.

Although both the clarinet and horn are playing in unison in Example 10.5.4, it is likely that you are able to tell that there are two different instruments. There is probably a good chance you can even hear that the instruments are a clarinet and a horn. How is this possible, if the concert pitch for both instruments is B-flat₄? This is due to timbre (pronounced “tam-bur”), which refers to the uniqueness of sounds. Timbre is also the reason why you can recognize whether it is your mom or your sister on the phone. Just as two people of the same height and build can have voices that are distinguishable, two instruments (such as two violins) can be distinguishable (although not as easily as two different instruments). Explaining timbre can be scientific and difficult to grasp in the scope of this theory textbook, so it is recommended that you watch a video to show how it works in action.^[14]

Homophony

While monophony refers to a single melody (whether by one or many performers), homophony refers to a melody with accompaniment. Homophony is a type of musical texture in which there is one melody while other voices or instruments perform a subordinate role.

Example 10.5.4 is an example of homophony, as the violin in Rogers’s Violin Sonata begins with the melody while the piano plays an accompanimental role.

Example 10.5.4. Homophony: Rogers^[15], Violin Sonata, Op. 25, i – Allegro

Listen to only the piano’s part in Example 10.5.4. Do you hear how it lacks a true melody? Indeed, its job is to support the more interesting melody in the violin. Since there is a melody (violin) and accompaniment (piano), this excerpt is homophonic.

Homophonic texture does not require two or more instruments or voices. In Example 10.5.5, homophony is achieved on the piano.

Example 10.5.5. Homophony: Price^[16], “Ticklin’ Toes”

Although the left hand of the piano plays a more interesting part in Example 10.5.5 with its descending bass line than the piano’s part in Example 10.5.4, it is still secondary to the right hand’s melody. Therefore, Example 10.5.5 is homophonic.

Homophony can also occur when a melody is harmonized by other voices or instruments in the same rhythm. In other words, the other voices or instruments do not have the main melody but have different notes to support the melody, such as in Example 10.5.6.

Example 10.5.6. Homophony: Reichardt^[17], “Weihnachten: Welche Morgenröten wallen”  (“Christmas: What Dawns Wave”)

In Example 10.5.6, the four voices are singing different notes. However, Soprano #1 clearly has the melody. (For example, sing the melody in Alto #2 to compare.) Since there is one melody and the other voices serve as support, Example 10.5.6 is homophonic.

Music can alternate between monophony and homophony, as seen later in Mozart’s Piano Quartet (Example 10.5.7).

Example 10.5.7. Monophony and homophony: Mozart, Piano Quartet No. 1 in G Minor, K. 478, i – Allegro

Monophony and homophony alternate in the opening of Example 10.5.7. While one may think that when the piano performs alone, the texture is monophonic, it is quite the opposite in this example. The first two bars of both systems are monophonic (as explained in Example 10.5.2). When the piano plays by itself at the end of both systems, the right hand has the melody while the left hand has an accompanying role, creating a homophonic texture.

Polyphony

Sometimes more than one instrument or voice has the melody—imagine telling a story and someone else begins telling the same story (or a different story) while you are midway through your story. When more than one voice or instrument has the same melody overlapping one another, or different melodies occurpolyphonic at the same time, the texture is polyphonic, as in Casulana’s madrigal in Example 10.5.8. A madrigal is a secular polyphonic song for multiple voices without instruments. The text often plays a strong role, and its peak was during the Renaissance.

Example 10.5.8. Polyphony: Casulana^[18], “Stavasi il mio bel sol” (“My Beautiful Sun Stood”)

• In Example 10.5.8, the melody first appears in Alto #2 but is soon joined by an independent melody in Alto #1.
• As soon as Alto #1 interrupts Alto #2, there is polyphony because there are two individual melodies.
• In measure 4, the Soprano enters with the same melody as Alto #2, but an octave higher.

The number of voices with simultaneous different melodies does not matter for polyphony: as long as there is more than one voice, it is polyphonic.

Polyphonic music does not need to literally include multiple voices; it can be multiple instruments or even a single instrument, as in the opening of Bach’s Fugue No. 6 (Example 10.5.9).

Example 10.5.9. Bach^[19], Fugue No. 6 from Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, BWV 851

• The melody begins in the right hand of the piano. Recall that in a fugue, the opening melody is called the subject (see Chapter 9, Section 9).
• While the right hand is completing the end of the subject, the left enters with the same melody, transposed at the dominant (i.e., in the key of A minor instead of D minor). In a fugue, the second melody at the dominant is called the answer.
• Once the answer appears in the left hand, the melody in the right hand is no longer called the subject, but instead, the countersubject.

It is important to remember that Example 10.5.9 is polyphonic only because the melody in the first voice is still continuing when the melody in the second voice begins. Imagine if you are listening to someone tell a story about their first day of class and in the middle of their story, the person next to them starts telling their story about their first day of class. As you can imagine, it can be hard to concentrate on two people telling their stories at the same time. Similarly, polyphonic music can sound complex and confusing when done incorrectly.

Heterophony

The last type of texture is heterophony, which is when the same melody occurs simultaneously in different voices, but with alterations or embellishments. It is seldom used in Western music.

Example 10.5.9. Heterophony: “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”

In Example 10.5.10, the top part has the basic melody. At the same time, the bottom part sings the melody with alterations or embellishments. When this occurs, the music has a heterophonic texture.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

Click here to watch the tutorial.

10.6  ANALYSIS: RAVEL, BOLÉRO

Ravel’s Boléro is a popular work for a large orchestra. Ravel was known for his orchestration skills. With a continuous percussive ostinato, Ravel cleverly moves the famous melody from instrument to instrument, taking advantage of the unique timbres of each. An ostinato is a when a rhythm or pitches are continually repeated. We can trace the two main melodies through the work, as the piece begins with simple monophony and gradually grows.

The first occurrence of the melody appears in the flute, which is an instrument in C (Example 10.6.1).

Example 10.6.1. Flute (Flûte) melody in Ravel^[20], Boléro

The next appearance is in the clarinet in B-flat (Example 10.6.2).

Example 10.6.2. Clarinet in B-flat (Clarinette en Si-flat) in Ravel, Boléro

Because the clarinet in B-flat sounds a major second below its written pitch, Example 10.6.2 is written a major second higher than Example 10.6.1. Another appearance of the melody occurs in the oboe d’amore, which is an instrument in A (Example 10.6.3).

Example 10.67.3. Oboe d’amore (hautbois d’amour) in Ravel, Boléro

As an instrument in A, the oboe d’amore sounds a minor third below its written pitch. Example 10.6.3 is written a minor third higher than Example 10.6.1.

There is a second closely-related main melody in Boléro, which first appears in the bassoon (Example 10.6.4).

Example 10.6.4. Bassoon (basson) in Ravel, Boléro

Sharing the same key signature as the flute, the bassoon is another instrument in C. Notice that the bassoon’s part is in the tenor clef (which is not uncommon for the bassoon). However, the upper register of this example is quite high for the bassoon—the melody begins on B-flat₄. This melody appears later in the clarinet in E-flat (Example 10.6.5).

Example 10.6.5. Clarinet in E-flat (Petite Clarinette en Mi-flat) in Ravel, Boléro

Because this is a petite clarinet (considered a sopranino member of the clarinet family), this clarinet actually sounds a minor third higher than its written pitch. Recall that the bassoon’s melody in Example 10.6.4 began high in its register on B-flat₄. Similarly, Example 10.6.5 begins not at the unison with the bassoon, but an octave higher with G₅.

The key signature for the clarinet in E-flat has three sharps because A major is a minor third below C (and the clarinet in E-flat sounds a minor third above C).

As previously mentioned, most, but not all, transposing instruments sound lower than the written pitch. Usually instruments that are the smallest member of an instrument family transpose higher. We learned earlier that the piccolo sounded an octave higher than written. These instruments are often labeled with words such as “soprano” or “piccolo.” Some examples are listed below (Example 10.6.6).

Example 10.6.6. Examples of transposing instruments that sound higher than written

On the other hand, instruments that are the largest member of an instrument family will sometimes transpose down by a compound interval (i.e., one octave plus the specified interval). We learned earlier that the double bass sounded an octave lower than written. These instruments are often labeled with words such as “contra” or “bass.” Some examples are listed below (Example 10.6.7).

Example 10.6.7. Examples of transposing instruments that sound an octave or more lower than written

As seen in Example 10.6.7, the tenor saxophone sounds more than an octave below its written pitch. Observe the tenor saxophone’s melody in Boléro (Example 10.6.8).

Example 10.6.8. Tenor saxophone in B-flat (Saxophone Tenor en Si-flat) in Ravel, Boléro

Although the first written pitch is C₆, the concert pitch is a major ninth lower (a P8 + M2). Therefore, the note we hear is B-flat₄.

Later, the second melody appears in a high-ranging saxophone. In the score, Ravel wrote the part for the sopranino saxophone in F, whose concert pitch would be a perfect fourth above its written pitch (Example 10.6.9).

Example 10.6.9. Sopranino saxophone in F (Saxophone Sopranino en Fa) in Ravel, Boléro

Although Ravel wrote the part for sopranino saxophone in F, there is actually no such instrument and scholars believe that Ravel made an error in the score. When the piece is performed today, it is usually played by a soprano saxophone in B-flat (Example 10.6.10).

Example 10.6.10. Soprano saxophone in B-flat in Ravel, Boléro

The soprano saxophone in B-flat sounds a major ninth higher (a P8 + M2). Because of the new key signature and pitches, Example 10.6.10 sounds exactly the same as Example 10.6.9.

When we place all these instrumental openings side by side, we can see the wide range of transposing instruments (Example 10.5.11).

Example 10.5.11. Various instruments side by side in Boléro

• The flute, clarinet, and oboe d’amour have the same first melody and their concert pitches are in unison.
• The bassoon, petite clarinet, tenor saxophone, and sopranino saxophone have the same second melody.
  • The bassoon, a C instrument, begins with B-flat₄.
  • The petite clarinet, being a “petite” instrument, sounds a third higher so begins with B-flat₅.
  • The tenor saxophone, being a “tenor” instrument, sounds a major ninth lower so begins with B-flat₄.
  • The sopranino saxophone in F, being a “sopranino” instrument, sounds a perfect fourth higher so begins with B-flat₅.

Compare how, despite sounding the same (or an octave apart), each instrument’s part includes a different key signature. Looking at these instruments’ parts side by side gives us a better understanding of how transposing instruments work.

Listen to the entire movement without the score, and appreciate the various timbres and musical textures.

SUMMARY

1. 1. 1. Instruments in C (or C instruments) are instruments whose written pitch (the note we see) is the same as their concert pitch (the note we hear).
      2. Transposing instruments are instruments whose written pitch is not the same as their concert pitch. There are several ways to tell when an instrument is a transposing instrument.
         • The instrument’s name includes the key of the instrument (e.g., trumpet in B-flat).
         • The key signature does not match with the other instruments in C.
      3. Transposing instruments help performers in that they allow musicians to learn one set of fingerings for a group of instruments and make reading music easier with fewer ledger lines.
      4. To find the interval between a transposing instrument’s written pitch and concert pitch, it is helpful to construct a transposing instrument chart where the first column shows what you see/C and the second column shows what you hear. Remember that the first column always begins with C, the homophone of “see”.
      5. In German, B means B-flat, H means B, and Es means E-flat. The Romance languages use solfège (e.g., cor en mi is horn in E and clarinette en si-flat is clarinet in B-flat).
      6. Comparing key signatures of transposing instruments to the key signature of instruments in C will tell you the key the instrument is in. Some instruments, such as the English horn, do not tell you the transposition.
      7. The key signature is not reliable for the horn, who normally does not include any key signature.
      8. Some instruments in C sound an octave higher or lower than their written pitch.
      9. When writing for transposing instruments, go in the opposite direction as when you found the concert pitch.

TERMS

• • • concert pitch
    • instruments in C (or C instruments)
    • transposing instrument
    • written pitch